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Smart Metering and Socio-Economic Approaches for Urban Water Sustainability during Drought in Cape Town, South Africa
1
Department of Earth Science, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, Cape Town 7535, South Africa
Submission date: 2026-03-12
Acceptance date: 2026-04-30
Online publication date: 2026-05-19
Publication date: 2026-06-30
Trends in Ecological and Indoor Environmental Engineering, 2026;4(2):72-84
KEYWORDS
urban water managementclimate change adaptationsustainablesmart water meteringwater scarcitydrought resiliencespatial analysis (GIS)water consumption behaviourunaccounted‑for water (UFW)socio-economic assessment
ABSTRACT
Background:
Urban water systems face increasing pressure from climate-driven droughts, population growth, and infrastructural limitations. In Cape Town, prolonged droughts have highlighted inequalities in household water access and consumption patterns. Understanding how socio-economic disparities and behavioural responses interact with municipal water management is essential to inform equitable, efficient, and sustainable water governance.
Objectives:
This study investigates how household socio-economic status, local infrastructure, and smart water metering influence water consumption patterns, identifies unaccounted-for water, and assesses strategies to improve demand-side management during droughts in rapidly urbanising cities.
Methods:
A multi-component, spatially grounded methodology was applied across six Cape Town suburbs representing three income tiers. Secondary data, including monthly billing records, water meter readings, and socio-economic indicators, were analysed using descriptive statistics, trend analyses, and unaccounted-for water assessment. Stratified random sampling ensured proportional representation of households across income categories. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to map consumption patterns and detect spatial disparities. Comparative analyses quantified variations in water demand, billing anomalies, and behavioural responses, while scenario-based evaluation examined the effectiveness of smart metering and demand-side interventions under differing drought conditions.
Results:
Findings reveal substantial heterogeneity in water consumption and billing across income tiers, with high variability driven by socio-economic disparities, household size, and settlement patterns. Negative consumption and unaccounted-for water indicate operational inefficiencies and potential socio-economic stress. Smart metering enabled improved detection of leaks and anomalous usage, but its effectiveness was moderated by affordability and compliance. Demand-side interventions, including tiered tariffs, volumetric restrictions, and public awareness campaigns, demonstrated potential to reduce consumption, particularly in higher-income households. Proactive and reactive strategies combined improved resilience and demonstrated the importance of equity-centred governance. Results showed that technical solutions alone are insufficient without concurrent socio-economic and behavioural considerations.
Conclusion:
Urban water resilience under drought requires integrated, equity-focused strategies combining technical, economic, and behavioural interventions. Smart metering and demand management are most effective when measures are taken to reduce socio-economic inequalities. The study' s novelty lies in combining municipal water billing records, socio-economic classifications, and GIS-based demographic mapping to examine disparities in urban water allocation and unaccounted-for water during drought conditions. This work advances knowledge by demonstrating how GIS-supported demographic analysis can contextualize patterns of water allocation, billing irregularities, and unaccounted-for water across socio-economic areas.
Urban water systems face increasing pressure from climate-driven droughts, population growth, and infrastructural limitations. In Cape Town, prolonged droughts have highlighted inequalities in household water access and consumption patterns. Understanding how socio-economic disparities and behavioural responses interact with municipal water management is essential to inform equitable, efficient, and sustainable water governance.
Objectives:
This study investigates how household socio-economic status, local infrastructure, and smart water metering influence water consumption patterns, identifies unaccounted-for water, and assesses strategies to improve demand-side management during droughts in rapidly urbanising cities.
Methods:
A multi-component, spatially grounded methodology was applied across six Cape Town suburbs representing three income tiers. Secondary data, including monthly billing records, water meter readings, and socio-economic indicators, were analysed using descriptive statistics, trend analyses, and unaccounted-for water assessment. Stratified random sampling ensured proportional representation of households across income categories. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were used to map consumption patterns and detect spatial disparities. Comparative analyses quantified variations in water demand, billing anomalies, and behavioural responses, while scenario-based evaluation examined the effectiveness of smart metering and demand-side interventions under differing drought conditions.
Results:
Findings reveal substantial heterogeneity in water consumption and billing across income tiers, with high variability driven by socio-economic disparities, household size, and settlement patterns. Negative consumption and unaccounted-for water indicate operational inefficiencies and potential socio-economic stress. Smart metering enabled improved detection of leaks and anomalous usage, but its effectiveness was moderated by affordability and compliance. Demand-side interventions, including tiered tariffs, volumetric restrictions, and public awareness campaigns, demonstrated potential to reduce consumption, particularly in higher-income households. Proactive and reactive strategies combined improved resilience and demonstrated the importance of equity-centred governance. Results showed that technical solutions alone are insufficient without concurrent socio-economic and behavioural considerations.
Conclusion:
Urban water resilience under drought requires integrated, equity-focused strategies combining technical, economic, and behavioural interventions. Smart metering and demand management are most effective when measures are taken to reduce socio-economic inequalities. The study' s novelty lies in combining municipal water billing records, socio-economic classifications, and GIS-based demographic mapping to examine disparities in urban water allocation and unaccounted-for water during drought conditions. This work advances knowledge by demonstrating how GIS-supported demographic analysis can contextualize patterns of water allocation, billing irregularities, and unaccounted-for water across socio-economic areas.
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