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Spatial Persistence and Interannual Variability of Floating Algae in Kainji Lake (Nigeria): Insights from Multi-Year Sentinel-2 Observations
1
Department of Plant Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria
Submission date: 2025-07-04
Acceptance date: 2025-08-08
Online publication date: 2026-09-14
Publication date: 2026-09-30
Trends in Ecological and Indoor Environmental Engineering, 2026;4(3):55-64
KEYWORDS
multi-year persistencefloating algaeinterannual variabilitySentinel-2remote sensingaquatic ecosystemsKainji LakeNigeria
ABSTRACT
Background:
Floating algae are increasingly recognized as indicators of ecological change in freshwater ecosystems. Although satellite remote sensing has been widely applied to monitor algal dynamics, little is known about the long-term spatial organization of floating algae in large tropical reservoirs in West Africa.
Objectives:
This study investigated the spatio-temporal dynamics of floating algae in Kainji Lake, Nigeria, from 2020 to 2025, with the aim of identifying recurrent hotspot zones, assessing interannual variability, and evaluating the long-term stability of floating algae distribution.
Methods:
Sentinel-2 Level-2A Surface Reflectance imagery was processed within the Google Earth Engine platform. Images with less than 10% cloud cover were selected and subjected to cloud masking and water extraction procedures. Floating algae were mapped using the Floating Algae Index (FAI), calculated from the red, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared spectral bands. Annual median FAI composites were generated for each year from 2020 to 2025. Descriptive statistics of positive FAI values were calculated to assess temporal variability. Multi-year persistence analysis was then performed to identify recurrent floating algae hotspot zones.
Results:
The results revealed pronounced spatial heterogeneity in floating algae occurrence across Kainji Lake. Floating algae were consistently concentrated within shoreline and embayment environments, whereas most open-water areas exhibited comparatively low occurrence. Mean annual positive FAI values ranged from 0.0656 to 0.0841, indicating interannual variability in floating algae intensity. Annual bloom extent varied from 139.93 to 168.64 km², representing 12 –15% of the lake surface, with the largest coverage recorded in 2022 and the smallest in 2025. Despite these temporal fluctuations, recurrent hotspot zones remained spatially consistent throughout the study period.
Conclusion:
Floating algae in Kainji Lake exhibit persistent spatial organization rather than random distribution. This study provides the first multi-year evidence of recurrent floating algae hotspot zones in the reservoir, establishing an important baseline for understanding floating algae dynamics, thereby addressing a significant knowledge gap in West African reservoir ecosystems and providing a foundation for future ecological assessments and monitoring programmes.
Floating algae are increasingly recognized as indicators of ecological change in freshwater ecosystems. Although satellite remote sensing has been widely applied to monitor algal dynamics, little is known about the long-term spatial organization of floating algae in large tropical reservoirs in West Africa.
Objectives:
This study investigated the spatio-temporal dynamics of floating algae in Kainji Lake, Nigeria, from 2020 to 2025, with the aim of identifying recurrent hotspot zones, assessing interannual variability, and evaluating the long-term stability of floating algae distribution.
Methods:
Sentinel-2 Level-2A Surface Reflectance imagery was processed within the Google Earth Engine platform. Images with less than 10% cloud cover were selected and subjected to cloud masking and water extraction procedures. Floating algae were mapped using the Floating Algae Index (FAI), calculated from the red, near-infrared, and short-wave infrared spectral bands. Annual median FAI composites were generated for each year from 2020 to 2025. Descriptive statistics of positive FAI values were calculated to assess temporal variability. Multi-year persistence analysis was then performed to identify recurrent floating algae hotspot zones.
Results:
The results revealed pronounced spatial heterogeneity in floating algae occurrence across Kainji Lake. Floating algae were consistently concentrated within shoreline and embayment environments, whereas most open-water areas exhibited comparatively low occurrence. Mean annual positive FAI values ranged from 0.0656 to 0.0841, indicating interannual variability in floating algae intensity. Annual bloom extent varied from 139.93 to 168.64 km², representing 12 –15% of the lake surface, with the largest coverage recorded in 2022 and the smallest in 2025. Despite these temporal fluctuations, recurrent hotspot zones remained spatially consistent throughout the study period.
Conclusion:
Floating algae in Kainji Lake exhibit persistent spatial organization rather than random distribution. This study provides the first multi-year evidence of recurrent floating algae hotspot zones in the reservoir, establishing an important baseline for understanding floating algae dynamics, thereby addressing a significant knowledge gap in West African reservoir ecosystems and providing a foundation for future ecological assessments and monitoring programmes.
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